Defense mechanisms, according to Sigmund Freud, are strategies that people use psychologically to ward off anxieties, so that they can cope with their stressors. Freud also proposed three structures of the psyche: the Id, which is comprised of raw, basic, and biological urges, and operates on the pleasure principle (instant gratification); the Superego, the direct opposite of the Id, which operates on a strict internal moral and societal code; and the Ego, which is the balance between the Id and Superego, and seeks to pacify both while being the decision-maker.
According to Freud, when the Id has an impulse, it will conflict with the Superego, which causes anxiety and dissatisfaction to rise to the surface. The Ego will then construct a defense mechanism to keep the anxiety at bay.
There are eight primary examples of defense mechanisms, and they are: Repression, Projection, Displacement, Reaction Formation, Regression, Rationalization, Identification, and Sublimation.
Repression is the involuntary act of suppressing impulse and desire into the subconscious. A person who is repressing will not be consciously aware of their thoughts or feelings, as they are buried in the subconscious. An example of repression is a survivor of sexual abuse, whose memories are blocked: the person will continue to have sexual intercourse, but is oblivious as to why they are not enjoying it. Another example of repression could be the eternal optimist, who continually repeats the same mistakes over and over again, not remembering previous negative outcomes. Many phobias also have a repressive trait; one who is an agoraphobic may be afraid to leave the house, but they truly have no idea why, or what the phobia stems from. The common denominator of the above examples is the subconscious nature of pushing away the anxiety; the defense mechanism of suppression is similar, but is a conscious and deliberate avoidance of anxiety.
Projection is a defense mechanism by which the person will project their negative thoughts or desires onto another person, usually something too obscene or shameful to handle. Projection is not a deliberate defense mechanism, is unconscious, and is generally used by all humans to some degree. An example of projection is a person who is unsure of their own sexuality. They may have internal homoerotic feelings, but to avoid the uncomfortable feeling of these thoughts, constantly chastise or make fun of others who are homosexual. Another good example of repression could be either spouse of a married couple. For example, the wife is having feelings of infidelity, but instead of addressing those feelings directly, becomes concerned and suspicious that her husband is having an affair. In addition, a student could intensely dislike another student in his or her class; but instead of addressing that dislike directly, the student will feel as if they are the one being disliked. The Id dislikes; the Superego has a moral value that ‘everyone deserves to be liked,’ and the Ego balances the two.
Displacement is the unconscious act of taking feelings, such as anger, and releasing the feelings on a ‘safer’ target. Displacement also can occur in a chain reaction. For example, a woman could have a terrible day at the office, to arrive home and scream at her husband. The husband then will scream at the child, and the child will scream at the cat (also called scapegoating). Another example could be a man who has been rejected by his partner sexually. He will then engage in sexual activity with another partner. There is also healthy displacement, by which a person may feel anger and aggression towards another person, but instead of violence or argument, the person punches a pillow. This technique is taught often in anger management.
Reaction Formation is a defense mechanism in which the person will exaggerate the opposite of the feeling they are actually experiencing. If the Id is feeling pleasurable sexual stimulation, the Superego will feel ashamed, and the Ego will try to pacify both. An example of Reaction Formation is the preacher who firmly preaches against the woes of pornography, yet finds himself viewing it often. Sigmund Freud also referred to this exaggerated compensation as “overboarding.” Another example of Reaction Formation could be the spouse who reiterates “I love you” at many points throughout the day to overcompensate for the fact that they are ambivalent, or not in love at all. Also, a supposed teetotaler will strongly advocate abstinence, to drink secretly in solitude. Reaction Formation is also commonly found in Obssessive-Complusive Disorder (OCD), in which a person will repeat the same action over and over, subconsciously knowing that the action is wrong.
Regression is the act of taking a childlike stance, or acting like a child, instead of acting in a more mature or adult fashion. A common example of regression could be an adult throwing a “temper tantrum” when they do not get their way, as opposed to having a civil discussion. Regression is not inherently bad; a person who is sad or lonely may sleep with a stuffed animal for comfort, as the stuffed animal will take them back in time to a place where they were comforted or parented as a child. Also, an older woman could seek to be in a relationship with a significantly younger man in order to revive her youth, or to feel as if she is “young again.” It is common in regression, that the more stressful the situation is, the more that the person is likely to regress.
Rationalization is the act of justifying, or using an acceptable excuse to justify bad behavior, thoughts, or feelings. A person could be extremely jilted by a recent lover; in order to conceal their true feelings of disappointment and hurt, they may say “I didn’t want to be with him (or her) anyway.” A prostitute may rationalize that she has chosen her profession to feed her children, when in reality, she has a drug habit she needs to fund. Additionally, an abusive husband could be physically violent toward his wife, while saying, “if you were a better wife, I wouldn’t need to hit you.” A young person can rationalize drug and alcohol experimentation by saying, “everyone is doing it.” Rationalization is also correlated with a human’s need for acceptance and self-esteem.
Identification is a defense mechanism by which the person unconsciously patterns him or herself after another person or group to boost their self-esteem. It should be noted that identification is not the same as imitation, where a person will consciously copy another. An example of identification could be a person who patterns themselves after followers of a particular musical group, in order to fit in, i.e., those who follow the Grateful Dead wear tie-dyed shirts; therefore the person in question will wear tie-dyed shirts. Also, a female college student may join a sorority in order to bolster her self-esteem. An ardent fan of Jack Nicholson may find they are suddenly a fan of the Los Angeles Lakers, or a zealous moviegoer will find themselves politically affiliated with the celebrities they admire. Identification contributes not only to forming groups, but also to forming a common bond with another person, as opposed to being enemies or rivals.
Sublimation is a defense mechanism in which the person typically expresses sexually aggressive impulses in ways deemed acceptable to society. A person who is obsessed with the female anatomy may turn these desires into being a successful sculptor, or artist. One who has aggressive thoughts and feelings can, instead of inflicting harm, turn their interests into a surgical or dental career. Someone who is depressed and saddened can write a beautiful, harmonic blues melody. Sublimation is considered by many in the field of psychoanalysis to be socially useful, and successful, as a defense mechanism.
All of the above defense mechanisms demonstrate Freud’s illustration of the Id, Superego, and Ego. The Id will have a feeling or stimulation, the Superego deems it morally unacceptable, and the Ego will try to balance it out. Often times, defense mechanisms are healthy, but there are instances where it can lead to maladaptive and pathological behavior.
